Global Climate

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Debbie Hemming acknowledges support from the Met Office Hadley Centre Climate Programme funded by the Department for Science, Innovation and Technology (DSIT), and thanks all co-authors for their interesting and helpful contributions. Andrew Richardson acknowledges support from the National Science Foundation (NSF) Long Term Ecological Research (LTER) program (award 1832210). John O’Keefe also acknowledges support from the NSF through the LTER (award 1832210) program. Nature’s Calendar (Woodland Trust) in the U.K. thanks all its volunteer recorders and support from players of People’s Postcode Lottery. Theresa Crimmins and the USA National Phenology Network (USA-NPN) acknowledge support from the NSF through the Division of Biological Infrastructure (award 2031660), the US Fish and Wildlife Service (agreements F16AC01075 and F19AC00168) and the U.S. Geological Survey (G14AC00405 and G18AC00135). The USA-NPN thanks the many participants contributing phenology observations to Nature’s Notebook. De Natuurkalender (Nature’s Calendar) program in the Netherlands thanks all the volunteers and school children in the GLOBE program for their many observations. Annette Menzel and Nicole Estrella acknowledge support from the Bavarian State Ministry of Science and the Arts in the context of the Bavarian Climate Research Network (BayKlif) (Bavarian Citizen Science Portal for Climate Research and Science Communication [BAYSICS]). The Slovak Hydrometeorological Institute thanks all its volunteer observers for participating in the phenological observation program. Orlane Anneville acknowledges support from the National Institute of Agricultural Research (INRAE). Stephen Thackeray thanks Werner Eckert, Heidrun Feuchtmayr, Shin-Ichiro Matsuzaki, Ryuichiro Shinohara, Jan-Erik Thrane, Piet Verburg, Tamar Zohary and all field and lab workers associated with the provision of the lake chlorophyll-a data. We acknowledge funding from Vassdragsforbundet for Mjøsa med tilløpselver (https://www.vassdragsforbundet.no/om-oss/) and Natural Environment Research Council award number NE/R016429/1 as part of the U.K. Status, Change and Projections of the Environment (UK-SCAPE) programme delivering National Capability. Data for Lakes Geneva and Bourget were contributed by the Observatory of alpine LAkes (OLA), © SOERE OLA-IS, AnaEE-France, INRAE of Thonon-les-Bains, CIPEL, CISALB. Research on James Ross Island was supported by the Czech Antarctic Research Programme and Czech Science Foundation project (GM22-28659M). The Circumpolar Active Layer Monitoring (CALM) program is funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF) Project 1836377. The Svalbard permafrost data is part the Svalbard Integrated Earth Observing System (SIOS). The Swiss Permafrost Monitoring Network (PERMOS) is financially supported by MeteoSwiss (in the framework of GCOS Switzerland), the Federal Office for the Environment, and the Swiss Academy of Sciences, and acknowledges the contribution of its partner institutions. The French Network PermaFRANCE is financially supported by the Observatoire des Sciences de l’Univers Grenoble and the French Research Infrastructure OZCAR. The Chinese Permafrost Monitoring Network is financially supported by the Chinese National Science Foundation (41931180) and Cryosphere Research Station on Qinghai-Xizang Plateau, CAS. Cassandra Rogers is supported with funding from the Australian Government under the National Environmental Science Program. Thank you to Tim Cowan from the University of Southern Queensland and Blair Trewin from the Bureau of Meteorology for providing initial reviews of the humid heat extremes over land section. Lake surface water temperatures from satellite data have been generated within the Climate Change Initiative Lakes project funded by the European Space Agency (4000125030/18/I-NB) with adaptation funded by the E.U. Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S) programme and extensions by the U.K. Earth Observation Climate Information Service (EOCIS) project (NE/X019071/1). Part of the in situ data used for the validation of the satellite data and for this report have kindly been made publicly available by Fisheries and Oceans Canada (FOC), the National Data Buoy Center (NDBC) from NOAA, the Hungarian Meteorological Office, the Upper Great Lakes Observing System (UGLOS), and the North Temperate Lakes Long-Term Ecological Research (NTL-LTER). The authors gratefully acknowledge the late Alon Rimmer for always supplying data for Lake Kinneret. Data from Lake Zurich were provided by the City of Zurich Water Supply and by the Amt für Abfall, Wasser, Energie und Luft of the Canton of Zurich. Kate Willett was supported by the Met Office Hadley Centre Climate Programme funded by the Department for Science, Innovation and Technology (DSIT). Adrian Simmons and David Lavers were supported by the Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S) implemented by the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) on behalf of the European Commission. The NOAA Proving Ground and Risk Reduction (PGRR) Program supported the contributions by O. R. Cooper and K.-L. Chang. K.-L. Chang was also supported by NOAA cooperative agreement NA22OAR4320151. Funding for J. Ziemke for this research was provided in part by NASA NNH14ZDA001N-DSCOVR, NASA Suomi NPP and Joint Polar Satellite System (JPSS) Satellites Standard Products for Earth System Data Records, and Code 614 programmatic support for long-term ozone trends. Carlo Arosio, Melanie Coldewey-Egbers, Diego Loyola, Viktoria Sofieva, Alexei Rozanov, and Mark Weber are grateful to the E.U. Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S), C3S2_312a_Lot2 Ozone, and to European Space Agency‘s (ESA) Climate Change Initiative Ozone (CCI+) projects for supporting the generation and extension of the GTO-ECV total ozone and SAGE-CCI-OMPS data records. Carlo Arosio, Viktoria Sofieva, Kleareti Tourpali, Alexei Rozanov, and Mark Weber are grateful for the support of the ESA project Ozone Recovery from Merged Observational Data and Model Analysis (OREGANO). Stacey M. Frith is supported by the NASA Long Term Measurement of Ozone program WBS 479717. Lucien Froidevaux’s contribution, with the assistance of Ryan Fuller, was performed at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), California Institute of Technology, under contract with NASA. Jeannette Wild was supported by NOAA grant NA19NES4320002 (Cooperative Institute for Satellite Earth System Studies [CISESS]) at the University of Maryland’s Earth System Science Interdisciplinary Center (ESSIC). Melanie Coldewey-Egbers and Diego Loyola acknowledge the partial support by the German Aerospace Center (DLR) projects MABAK and INPULS. Lidar observations at Observatory de Haute-Provence (OHP) are funded by the French National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS) National Institute of Sciences of the Universe (INSU) and CNES. S. Khaykin’s work is supported by the ANR PyroStrat 21-CE01-335 0007-01 project. We thank Christine David, Alain Hauchecorne, Julien Jumelet, Philippe Keckhut (LATMOS), and the lidar station operators for their contributions to long-term monitoring of stratospheric aerosol at OHP. Lidar observation at Lauder are funded in part by the Greenhouse gases Observing SATellite (GOSAT) project. We thank Richard Querel (National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research [NIWA]), Osamu Uchino, Tomohiro Nagai (Meteorological Research Institute [MRI]) and Yushitaka Jin (MRI) for their contributions to long-term monitoring of stratospheric aerosol at Lauder. D. G. Miralles acknowledges support from the European Research Council (ERC) under grant agreement no. 101088405 (HEAT). H. E. Beck is supported by the King Abdullah University of Science and Technology. Kate Willett was supported by the U.K.-China Research and Innovation Partnership Fund through the Met Office Climate Science for Service Partnership (CSSP) China under the International Science Partnerships Fund (ISPF). B. M. Kraemer acknowledges support from the University of Freiburg Chair of Environmental Hydrosystems. M. F. Meyer and M. E. Harlan were supported by the United States Geological Survey (USGS) Mendenhall Fellowships from the Water Mission Area. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. R. S. La Fuente was funded by the Irish HEA Landscape programme and Dundalk Institute of Technology (DkIT) Research Office. Any use of trade, firm, or product names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government. Jonathan Barichivich was supported by the European Research Council (ERC) under the Horizon Europe research and innovation programme (ERC-starting grant CATES, grant agreement No. 101043214). Tim Osborn received funding from the U.K. Natural Environment Research Council (NERC) (NE/S015582/1). Ian Harris received funding from U.K. National Centre for Atmospheric Science (NCAS). The research presented in the drought section was carried out on the High-Performance Computing Cluster supported by the Research and Specialist Computing Support service at the University of East Anglia. Robert Dunn and Kate Willett were supported by the Met Office Hadley Centre Climate Programme. Work performed by Stephen Po-Chedley at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) was supported by the Regional and Global Model Analysis Program of the Office of Science at the Department of Energy (DOE) and performed under the auspices of the DOE under Contract DE-AC52-07NA27344. C. Azorin-Molina was supported by CSIC-UV-GVA and funded by AICO/2021/023, LINCGLOBAL-CSIC ref. INCGLO0023, and PTI-CLIMA. Robert Dunn was supported by the Met Office Hadley Centre Climate Programme funded by the Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy (BEIS). L. Ricciardulli was supported by NASA Ocean Vector Wind Science Team grant 80NSSC23K0984. Z. Zeng was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China grant 42071022. Rock glacier monitoring at Hinteres Langtalkar and Dösen rock glaciers (AT) is supported by the Hohe Tauern National Park Carinthia through its long-term permafrost monitoring program. Laurichard (FR) survey is supported by Observation and Experimentation System for Environmental Research (SOERE/ All’envi-OZCAR Research Infrastructure) and the PermaFrance observatory “monitoring the mountain permafrost in the French Alps” as well as the French National Research Agency in the framework of the Investissements d’Avenir programs: Risk@UGA (ANR-15-IDEX-02) and LabEx OSUG@2020 (ANR10 LABX56). The Ecrins National Park has helped field surveys since the early 2000s. The Swiss Permafrost Monitoring Network (PERMOS) is financially supported by MeteoSwiss in the framework of Global Climate Observing System (GCOS) Switzerland, the Federal Office for the Environment, and the Swiss Academy of Sciences. PERMOS acknowledges the important contribution of the partner institutions and principal investigators. The time series for Central Asian rock glaciers was compiled with the ESA Permafrost_CCI project (4000123681/18/I-NB). The time series for the Dry Andes was supported by the Centro de Estudios Avanzados en Zonas Áridas (CEAZA) and the Leading House for the Latin American Region (University of St. Gallen), grant number MOB1829. This work is funded in part by NOAA’s Climate Data Record (CDR) Program at the National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI). The work of M. Füllekrug was sponsored by the Royal Society (U.K.) grant NMG/R1/180252 and the Natural Environment Research Council (U.K.) under grants NE/L012669/1 and NE/H024921/1. E. Williams is supported for studies on global circuit response to climate change from the Physical and Dynamic Meteorology Program at the National Science Foundation (NSF) on grant no. 6942679. C. Price was supported in his lightning research by the Israel Science Foundation (ISF) grant 2701/17, and the Ministry of Energy grant no. 220-17-002. S. Goodman was supported by NASA Grant 80NSSC21K0923 and NASA Contract 80GSFC20C044. The authors wish to thank Peter Thorne at Maynooth University in Ireland and at the European Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecast (ECMWF) for suggesting and initiating this work and for recommending that lightning be made an essential climate variable. R. C. Cornes was supported by the NERC NC CLASS programme (NE/R015953/1) and the NERC GloSAT project (NE/S015647/2). R. Junod was supported by funding from the U.S. Department of Energy (DE-SC0023332).